Human Development

Two strands of human development are social and emotional. 2. Two stages of human development from the case study are older adulthood and adulthood. 3. Nature is what you are born with, like what you inherit from your parents, an example from the case study is that Iain and Kirsty’s daughter has brown curly hair just like Iain. 4. Nurture is what you learn as you grow up and go through life; an example of nurture from the case study is that Anne is planning on caring for her new grand-daughter when Kirsty returns to work. . Two key features of behavioural approach is Behavioural and Consequence, Behavioural meaning if a child wants something and takes a tantrum, and Consequence meaning if they are giving what they want then they will think that it is the correct way to behave and there for do it again. 6. Three key features of the social learning theory are Bonding – children connecting with people, like parents making them feel safe around them and loved.Loss – If someone dies or goes away, for example a loved one you miss them and start to feel this sense of loss in life, like an empty space has arrived that wasn’t there before. 7. Two ways in which the behavioural approach can help care workers understand human development and behaviour is , it helps them learn how to act and respond to a child’s behaviour and helps them understand how they should react to something, such as praise them for good things but tell them no it was wrong if they did something wrong. . From the case study you can understand why Jenny does not want to move into supported accommodation not only because she is happy at home but she feels secure and loved at home with her mum, and now thinks that she is getting pushed aside as her mum has remarried and is moving in with her new partner. Jenny will feel a sense of loss due to this and may also feel bereavement due to only losing her dad two year ago. Staying at home could remind.. Human Development HSV 504: Human Development-Early Memory Development Dianne Wright Post University Introduction Many human development specialists have examined memory loss of adults later in life. During the past fifty years, there have been many studies in children’s cognitive development and earlier childhood memory loss. Ernest G. Schachtel conducted studies on why people forget childhood memories as they grow older. He described the processes that could be involved in early memory loss (Crain, 2005). He was influenced by Sigmund Freud’s cognitive theory (Crain, 2005). Lev S.Vygotsky, however, described children’s early memory development as a holistic process that involved society, physiological, cultural, and economical environments. (Vygotsky, 1978) Vygotsky was influenced by Karl Marx’s theory of people’s development, noted Crain (2005). Schachtel was influenced by Sigmund Freud; both theorists seemed to agree that children learn to remember more systematica lly when prompted by a more experienced person, like their parents and caregivers (Broderick and Blewitt, 2010). Young people separated from their parents when they were children can have fragmented memories of that earlier time.There are a series of systems involved in memory loss (Lerner, Easterbrooks, and Mistry, 2003). Keywords: memory, socialization, childhood, processes, environment HSV 504: Human Development-Early memory loss Doctor Schachtel said adults lose their very early childhood memories. He says the older children get, the more early childhood memories they lose (Crain, 2005). Crain (2005) explained that Schachtel said early childhood memory loss was called â€Å"infantile amnesia† (p. 327). When they were infants people had intense experiences; however as time passed and other experiences took their place, they forgot the earlier memories (Crain, 2005).Most importantly, the earlier experiences were lost because they occurred before the child could speak. Like his predecessor Freud, Schachtel said that to some extent, early hostile and sexual feelings were repressed because they led to shame (Crain, 2005). Schachtel believed forgetting most early childhood memories was common to every experience people had during early childhood. In addition, children were socialized by caregivers and peers to change their first response to pleasure in order to conform to cultural expectations.Schachtel believed that the differences with adult’s and children’s memory loss were with how they experienced their lives. He said that adults experience their lives primarily through verbal associations (Crain, 2005), like seeing a nice shade of blue and saying what a pretty color it is. Children before one year of age experience their lives through taste and smell (Crain, 2005). As children grow up, they start to conform to the way adults and peers experience the world, yet to maintain the characterization of familiar perceptions of the world (Crain , 2005). Schachtel said that infants experience life with their senses.The most important sense is taste. Babies have more taste buds than adults do (Crain, 2005). Many times whatever they touch winds up in their mouths. In addition, the sense of smell is important to babies because they learn to identify their mother by her smell, as well as how she tastes. The sense of sight is not as important to infants as it is for older children (Crain, 2005). Schachtel identifies these senses as body senses. Temperature is felt on the body as hot and cold, they are inside senses, he said. Sight and hearing are outside senses because they are other focused. Smell and taste are inside focused (Crain, 2005).According to Schachtel, when adults experience memory categories, they have very little words to describe the tasting, smelling and feeling senses in memory (Crain, 2005). When children start to experience life by exploring new things, looking at their body functions for example, adults becom e concerned and begin socializing them to respond like themselves (Crain, 2005). Freud said the same about children being discouraged from investigating their body functions (Gay, 1998). However, he said that they are discouraged from that experience by their caregivers (Crain, 2005). It is considered rude in the west to discriminate based on smell.To say someone’s breath smells bad in public is not considered polite, so that sentiment is rarely spoken in public. Yet, body odor is the primary smell that would intrigue a very young child, said Schachtel (Crain, 2005). Their parents tell them that it is not good and the child learns to distance herself from that sensory pleasure. Schachtel also said that with passing of time the highly sensitive sensory experiences are lost to the children because they are repressed (Crain, 2005). Schachtel believed that adults are less sensitive to their earlier sensory perceptions due to socialization (Crain, 2005).The senses become defined a s either good or bad, and adults have extensive vocabulary labeling things they see, but not food that they taste or odors they smell (Crain, 2005). Schachtel further explains the only adults that would still have their earlier perceptions intact after parental and peer socialization would be creative individuals like writers and painters (Crain, 2005). When a child gets older, many things that were accepted in infancy can become less intense because their orientation changes toward the outside senses, sight and touch.Schachtel also said that babies enjoyed the warmth of protective environments (Crain, 2005). Crain (2005) added that Schachtel was a pioneer in his observations about the loss of early memories. When Schachtel started writing, no one else was aware that as people got older they lost many of their childhood memories (Crain, 2005). In the years after Schachtel had written about early memory loss, there have been several studies that have added to his insights. Crain (200 5) also stated we could lose memories earlier and faster than Schachtel said we did. Lev S.Vygotsky said that children develop within their respective cultures and societies long before they learn to speak (Crain, 2005). He also noted a children’s development involved its society, economic status, and physiological development. Vygotsky (1978) stressed that a childs’ learning processes where more than subconscious and mental; children’s development can grow within every environmental aspect of their lives. Children learn from caregivers in their respective cultures how to relate within their environments, noted Broderick & Blewitt (2010).Vygotsky said that children learned how to relate in two stages: first when parents teach them to interrelate; and then within themselves as they start to interact with their peers (Crain, 2005). Most importantly, Schachtel taught people what processes could happen inside the thinking of babies and very young children (Crain, 20 05). He also believed that parents help children put their thoughts into words by recalling what they saw at particular events, but at a cost of the children losing much of their earlier memories.In this view, Schachtel agreed with Vygotsky (Crain, 2005). Schachtel was a pioneer in the study of memory loss of young children as they grow older (Crain, 2005). According to Crain (2005), his theory has made the deepest impression on this writer who is a caseworker. As a practitioner that enters legal codes for children that have gone through many kinds of abuse and neglect, one wonders how many of those children are trying to recall their earlier memories of being separated from their parents. Some of these young people grew up in their relative’s homes.Those adults told them about their parents and some of the circumstances that caused them to be placed in foster care. Now, they are coming to the agency requesting to see their closed case records. Many of those records have phot ographs. There are court hearings that video tape their proceedings for their records. Some of Vygotsky’s findings were published abroad three years after Schachtel published his human development work (Crain, 2005). Vygotsky’s theory about children’s cognitive development was not paid attention to because his writings were banned (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Today both theorists are studied because Vygotsky stressed environmental involvement in cognitive development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010); and Schachtel’s theory stressed the mental processes of human development (Crain, 2005). Schachtel and Vygotsky’s theories agree in that both said that parents, caregivers and other environmental models help children in learning new activities. Vygotsky said that since children are learning new things all the time, their abilities progress as they grow older (Crain, 2005).Schachtel said most of children’s socialization comes from parents and peers to conform to their respective society’s mode of behavior (Crain, 2005). Vygotsky’s theory of socio-cultural development resonates with many developmentalists because there has to be more to people’s development than mental processes. A whole series of systems contributes to very early memory functions as children grow up. According to Lerner, Easterbrooks, & Mistry (2003), there have been numerous studies on cognitive functions and memory.They explained that memory loss of young children as they become adults can be related to a combination of processes from neurological to sociological. In addition, there are now numerous studies discussing brain function with social and physiological developments (Lerner et al. , 2003). Lerner et. al (2003) also explained that age, lifestyle, and education are among other determinants that have influenced the changing relationships in memory processes over a person’s lifespan. Since Schachtel’s writings more than f ifty years ago on children’s memory development, there have been many studies on the same subject (Cycowicz, 2000).Human development specialists are discovering new information on memory and cognitive development. According to Wertsch (1985), Vygotsky’s works are now studied because of their holistic approaches to human development. References Broderick, P. C. & Blewitt, P. (2010). The life span: Human development for helping professionals. (3rd ed. ). Pearson: Boston, MA. Cycowicz, Y. M. (2000). Memory development and event-related brain potentials in children. Biological Psychology, 54, (174). Crain, W. C. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. 5th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson: Prentice Hall. Gay, P. (1998). Freud: A Life for Our Times. London: J. M. Dent and Sons. Lerner, R. M. , Easterbrooks, M. A. , & Mistry, J. (eds. ). (2003). Handbook of Psychology. 6, 443-461. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Human Development HSV 504: Human Development-Early Memory Development Dianne Wright Post University Introduction Many human development specialists have examined memory loss of adults later in life. During the past fifty years, there have been many studies in children’s cognitive development and earlier childhood memory loss. Ernest G. Schachtel conducted studies on why people forget childhood memories as they grow older. He described the processes that could be involved in early memory loss (Crain, 2005). He was influenced by Sigmund Freud’s cognitive theory (Crain, 2005). Lev S.Vygotsky, however, described children’s early memory development as a holistic process that involved society, physiological, cultural, and economical environments. (Vygotsky, 1978) Vygotsky was influenced by Karl Marx’s theory of people’s development, noted Crain (2005). Schachtel was influenced by Sigmund Freud; both theorists seemed to agree that children learn to remember more systematica lly when prompted by a more experienced person, like their parents and caregivers (Broderick and Blewitt, 2010). Young people separated from their parents when they were children can have fragmented memories of that earlier time.There are a series of systems involved in memory loss (Lerner, Easterbrooks, and Mistry, 2003). Keywords: memory, socialization, childhood, processes, environment HSV 504: Human Development-Early memory loss Doctor Schachtel said adults lose their very early childhood memories. He says the older children get, the more early childhood memories they lose (Crain, 2005). Crain (2005) explained that Schachtel said early childhood memory loss was called â€Å"infantile amnesia† (p. 327). When they were infants people had intense experiences; however as time passed and other experiences took their place, they forgot the earlier memories (Crain, 2005).Most importantly, the earlier experiences were lost because they occurred before the child could speak. Like his predecessor Freud, Schachtel said that to some extent, early hostile and sexual feelings were repressed because they led to shame (Crain, 2005). Schachtel believed forgetting most early childhood memories was common to every experience people had during early childhood. In addition, children were socialized by caregivers and peers to change their first response to pleasure in order to conform to cultural expectations.Schachtel believed that the differences with adult’s and children’s memory loss were with how they experienced their lives. He said that adults experience their lives primarily through verbal associations (Crain, 2005), like seeing a nice shade of blue and saying what a pretty color it is. Children before one year of age experience their lives through taste and smell (Crain, 2005). As children grow up, they start to conform to the way adults and peers experience the world, yet to maintain the characterization of familiar perceptions of the world (Crain , 2005). Schachtel said that infants experience life with their senses.The most important sense is taste. Babies have more taste buds than adults do (Crain, 2005). Many times whatever they touch winds up in their mouths. In addition, the sense of smell is important to babies because they learn to identify their mother by her smell, as well as how she tastes. The sense of sight is not as important to infants as it is for older children (Crain, 2005). Schachtel identifies these senses as body senses. Temperature is felt on the body as hot and cold, they are inside senses, he said. Sight and hearing are outside senses because they are other focused. Smell and taste are inside focused (Crain, 2005).According to Schachtel, when adults experience memory categories, they have very little words to describe the tasting, smelling and feeling senses in memory (Crain, 2005). When children start to experience life by exploring new things, looking at their body functions for example, adults becom e concerned and begin socializing them to respond like themselves (Crain, 2005). Freud said the same about children being discouraged from investigating their body functions (Gay, 1998). However, he said that they are discouraged from that experience by their caregivers (Crain, 2005). It is considered rude in the west to discriminate based on smell.To say someone’s breath smells bad in public is not considered polite, so that sentiment is rarely spoken in public. Yet, body odor is the primary smell that would intrigue a very young child, said Schachtel (Crain, 2005). Their parents tell them that it is not good and the child learns to distance herself from that sensory pleasure. Schachtel also said that with passing of time the highly sensitive sensory experiences are lost to the children because they are repressed (Crain, 2005). Schachtel believed that adults are less sensitive to their earlier sensory perceptions due to socialization (Crain, 2005).The senses become defined a s either good or bad, and adults have extensive vocabulary labeling things they see, but not food that they taste or odors they smell (Crain, 2005). Schachtel further explains the only adults that would still have their earlier perceptions intact after parental and peer socialization would be creative individuals like writers and painters (Crain, 2005). When a child gets older, many things that were accepted in infancy can become less intense because their orientation changes toward the outside senses, sight and touch.Schachtel also said that babies enjoyed the warmth of protective environments (Crain, 2005). Crain (2005) added that Schachtel was a pioneer in his observations about the loss of early memories. When Schachtel started writing, no one else was aware that as people got older they lost many of their childhood memories (Crain, 2005). In the years after Schachtel had written about early memory loss, there have been several studies that have added to his insights. Crain (200 5) also stated we could lose memories earlier and faster than Schachtel said we did. Lev S.Vygotsky said that children develop within their respective cultures and societies long before they learn to speak (Crain, 2005). He also noted a children’s development involved its society, economic status, and physiological development. Vygotsky (1978) stressed that a childs’ learning processes where more than subconscious and mental; children’s development can grow within every environmental aspect of their lives. Children learn from caregivers in their respective cultures how to relate within their environments, noted Broderick & Blewitt (2010).Vygotsky said that children learned how to relate in two stages: first when parents teach them to interrelate; and then within themselves as they start to interact with their peers (Crain, 2005). Most importantly, Schachtel taught people what processes could happen inside the thinking of babies and very young children (Crain, 20 05). He also believed that parents help children put their thoughts into words by recalling what they saw at particular events, but at a cost of the children losing much of their earlier memories.In this view, Schachtel agreed with Vygotsky (Crain, 2005). Schachtel was a pioneer in the study of memory loss of young children as they grow older (Crain, 2005). According to Crain (2005), his theory has made the deepest impression on this writer who is a caseworker. As a practitioner that enters legal codes for children that have gone through many kinds of abuse and neglect, one wonders how many of those children are trying to recall their earlier memories of being separated from their parents. Some of these young people grew up in their relative’s homes.Those adults told them about their parents and some of the circumstances that caused them to be placed in foster care. Now, they are coming to the agency requesting to see their closed case records. Many of those records have phot ographs. There are court hearings that video tape their proceedings for their records. Some of Vygotsky’s findings were published abroad three years after Schachtel published his human development work (Crain, 2005). Vygotsky’s theory about children’s cognitive development was not paid attention to because his writings were banned (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).Today both theorists are studied because Vygotsky stressed environmental involvement in cognitive development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010); and Schachtel’s theory stressed the mental processes of human development (Crain, 2005). Schachtel and Vygotsky’s theories agree in that both said that parents, caregivers and other environmental models help children in learning new activities. Vygotsky said that since children are learning new things all the time, their abilities progress as they grow older (Crain, 2005).Schachtel said most of children’s socialization comes from parents and peers to conform to their respective society’s mode of behavior (Crain, 2005). Vygotsky’s theory of socio-cultural development resonates with many developmentalists because there has to be more to people’s development than mental processes. A whole series of systems contributes to very early memory functions as children grow up. According to Lerner, Easterbrooks, & Mistry (2003), there have been numerous studies on cognitive functions and memory.They explained that memory loss of young children as they become adults can be related to a combination of processes from neurological to sociological. In addition, there are now numerous studies discussing brain function with social and physiological developments (Lerner et al. , 2003). Lerner et. al (2003) also explained that age, lifestyle, and education are among other determinants that have influenced the changing relationships in memory processes over a person’s lifespan. Since Schachtel’s writings more than f ifty years ago on children’s memory development, there have been many studies on the same subject (Cycowicz, 2000).Human development specialists are discovering new information on memory and cognitive development. According to Wertsch (1985), Vygotsky’s works are now studied because of their holistic approaches to human development. References Broderick, P. C. & Blewitt, P. (2010). The life span: Human development for helping professionals. (3rd ed. ). Pearson: Boston, MA. Cycowicz, Y. M. (2000). Memory development and event-related brain potentials in children. Biological Psychology, 54, (174). Crain, W. C. (2005). Theories of development: Concepts and applications. 5th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson: Prentice Hall. Gay, P. (1998). Freud: A Life for Our Times. London: J. M. Dent and Sons. Lerner, R. M. , Easterbrooks, M. A. , & Mistry, J. (eds. ). (2003). Handbook of Psychology. 6, 443-461. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Wertsch, J. V. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Caesars: Gambling Big on Technology

Caesars—Gambling Big on Technology This case illustrates how database technologies can support an organization's business strategy. The large investment made by Caesars Entertainment Corporation, formerly Harrah's, in its information technology strategy has been tremendously successful. The results of Caesars investment at the time include: * 10 percent annual increase in customer visits. * 33 percent increase in gross market revenue. * Yearly profits of over US$208 million. * Highest three-year ROI in the industry. * A network that links over 42,000 gaming machines in 26 casinos across 12 states in the U.S. * Rated number six on the 100 best places to work in IT by ComputerWorld magazine. * Recipient of a Leadership in Data Warehousing Award from the Data Warehousing Institute (TDWI), the premier association for data warehousing. The casino industry is highly competitive—rivalry among existing competitors is fierce. Bill Harrah was a man ahead of his time when he opene d his first bingo parlour in 1937 with the commitment of getting to know each one of his customers. In 1984, Phil Satre, president and CEO of Harrah's, continued that.In search of its competitive advantage, Harrah's invested in an enterprise-wide technology infrastructure to maintain Bill Harrah's original conviction: â€Å"Serve your customers well and they will be loyal. † Caesars' Commitment to Customers When Harrah's implemented its patented Total RewardsTM program it was resigned to help build strong relationships with its customers. The program rewarded customers for their loyalty by tracking their gaming habits across its then 26 properties and currently maintains information on over 19 million customers, information the company uses to analyze, predict, and maximize each customer's value.At Caesars the program continues to be a success because of its implementation of a service-oriented strategy. Total Rewards allows Caesars to give every customer the appropriate amou nt of personal attention, whether it's leaving sweets in the hotel room or offering free meals. Total Rewards works by providing each customer with an account and a corresponding card to swipe each time he or she plays a casino game. The program collects information on the amount of time the customers gamble, their total winnings and losses, and their betting strategies.Customers earn points based on the amount of time they spend gambling, which they can then exchange for complimentary items such as free dinners, hotel rooms, tickets to shows, and even cash. Total Rewards helps employees determine which level of service to provide each customer. When a customer makes a reservation at any of Caesars brands, the service representative taking the call can view the customer's detailed information including the customer's loyalty level, games typically played, past winnings and losses, and potential net worth.If the service representative notices that the customer has a Diamond loyalty l evel, the service representative knows that customer should never have to wait in line and should always receive free upgrades to the most expensive rooms. â€Å"Almost everything we do in marketing and decision making is influenced by technology,† says Gary Loveman, Caesars' chairman and CEO. â€Å"The prevailing wisdom in this business is that the attractiveness of property drives customers. Our approach is different. We stimulate demand by knowing our customers.For example, if one of our customers always vacations at Harrah's in April, they will receive a promotion in February redeemable for a free weekend in April. † Gaining Business Intelligence with a Data Warehouse Millions of customers visit Caesars resorts each year, and tracking a customer base larger than the population of Germany is a challenge. To tackle this challenge Caesars began developing a system called WINet (Winner's Data Network). WINet links all Caesars properties, allowing the company to collect and share customer information on an enterprise-wide basis.WINet collects customer data from all the company transactions, game machines, and hotel management and reservations systems, transforms and cleanses this data, and then places the resulting information in a central data warehouse. Information in the data warehouse includes both customer and gaming information recorded in hourly increments. The marketing department uses the data warehouse to analyze customer information for patterns and insights, which allows it to create individualized marketing programs for each customer based on spending habits.Most important, the data warehouse allows the company to make business decisions based on information, not intuition. Casinos traditionally treat customers as though they belong to a single property, typically the place the customer most frequently visits. Harrah's was the first casino to realize the potential of rewarding customers for visiting more than one property. Today, Caes ars has found that customers who visit more than one of its properties represent the fastest growing revenue segment.In the first two years of the Total Rewards program, the company received a $100 million increase in revenue from customers who gambled at more than one casino. Caesars also uses BI to determine gaming machine performance. Using the data warehouse, Caesars examines the performance and cost structure of each individual gaming machine. The company can quickly identify games that do not deliver optimal operational performance and can make a decision to move or replace the games. The capability to assess the performance of each individual slot machine has provided Caesars with savings in the tens of millions of dollars.Former CIO Tim Stanley stated, â€Å"As we leverage more information from our data warehouse and increase the use and sophistication of our decision science analytical tools, we expect to have many new ways to improve customer loyalty and satisfaction, dri ve greater revenues, and decrease our costs as part of our ongoing focus on achieving sustainable profitability and success. † Security and Privacy Some customers have concerns about Caesars data and information collection strategy since they want to keep their gambling information private.The good news for these customers is that casinos are actually required to be more mindful of privacy concerns than most companies. For example, casinos cannot send marketing material to any underage persons. To adhere to strict government regulations, casinos must ensure that the correct information security and restrictions are in place. Many other companies actually make a great deal of money by selling customer information. Caesars has not joined this trend since its customer data and information are part of the company's competitive advantage. The Future of CaesarsIn the future, Caesars hopes to become device-independent by allowing employees to access the company's data warehouse via m obile devices. â€Å"Managing relationships with customers is incredibly important to the health of our business,† Stanley says. â€Å"We will apply whatever technology we can to do that. † For example, Caesars has been undergoing efforts to develop systems described as â€Å"patron-based technology† that foster communication with customers through slot machines. Ultimately, such data collected through slot machines can be stored in a data warehouse and later analyzed to gain further insight into customers and their needs. 0 Questions 1. Identify the effects poor information might have on Caesars service-oriented business strategy. 2. How does Caesars use database technologies to implement its service-oriented strategy? 3. Caesars was one of the first casino companies to find value in offering rewards to customers who visit multiple Caesars locations. Describe the effects on the company if it had not built any integrations among the databases located at each of its casinos. How could Caesars use distributed databases or a data warehouse to synchronize customer information? . Estimate the potential impact to Caesars business if there is a security breach in its customer information. 5. Identify three different types of data marts Caesars might want to build to help it analyze its operational performance. 6. What might occur if Caesars fails to clean or scrub its information before loading it into its data warehouse? 7. Describe cluster analysis, association detection, and statistical analysis and explain how Caesars could use each one to gain insights into its business.

Accounting Equation Paper

The accounting equation which we know as Assets equals to Liabilities plus Equity for a sole proprietorship and for a corporation we know it as Assets equals to liabilities plus stockholders & equity. Assets are company owned, liabilities are what company owes and the difference between the both of them is the owner’s equity, these three things are what the companies are measured by in the financial field. In order to understand them more clearly and how the accounting equation shows a simple way of understanding the three amounts relating to one and another, which are the assets that include cash, account receivable, equipment. Then the liabilities include notes payable, accounts payable and salaries payable. Finally, owner’s and stockholder’s equity includes common stock and retained earnings. The accounting balance sheet is one of the biggest financial statements used by accountants and business owners, these are income statements, cash flow statements, and stockholders equity statements. Balance sheet allows the creditor to see what a company owns as well as what he owes. These are very important things for someone to know for potential investors and others. So as we know, the balance sheet reflects the accounting equation, it shows the reports of company’s assets, liabilities, and owner’s and stockholders’ equity. If a company keeps their records up to date and accurate, the accounting equation will always be in balance, showing that the left side should always equal to the right side. This keeps the balance sheet balanced since all assets are financed either by equity or liabilities and also the accounting equation serves as the basis for the balance sheet. The balance sheet shows that the assets are on the debit side and liabilities and equity are on the credit side, so the accounting equation formulates in a way where the total debits should always equal the total credits. Every accounting equation has its effects on the accounting equation, because every transaction alters the components presented in the equation, in a way that the equation is satisfied after each modification.

Case Brief, Tax Law Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Brief, Tax Law - Case Study Example Between 1913 and 1948, each person was supposed to be taxed on their own without considering their marital status. In 1948, the Revenue Act spelt out that each married couple was supposed to file a joint return then remit double the tax that would be paid by a single individual (Fox 59). In 1969, a new class of tax payers called the two wage-earners married couple with a greater combined tax burden. This was the root cause of the "marriage penalty." ii. Does the ‘marriage penalty’ deny a person their freedom and rights in marriage? How is it related on contravenes the Fourteenth Amendment of the US Constitution which guarantees individual freedom? Analysis: The court addressed the issue of the Fourteenth Amendment and the constitutionality of the Internal Revenue Commission laws. While acknowledging that the law offers individual liberty, it was held that the "marriage penalty," in no way, violates the constitution. Besides, while accepting that this law has some adverse effects on individual taxpayers, it is an essential close in the constitution. Tax compliance is a duty and a responsibility of a patriotic citizen. IRC Section 1(D) clearly stipulates that married couple with higher incomes like the Drukers have to fall into a new category from other couples with less income. After all, the court confirmed, Revenue Act of 1948 states such married couples are supposed to file a joint tax return and double their remittances. I.R.C. Sec. 6694 (a) which forms part of the Tax Reform Act of 1976 imposes a penalty of $100 for any deliberate or intentional underestimation when filling tax returns. Such a violation constitutes neglig ence which is punishable by law. Revenue Act of 1948 states such married couples are supposed to file a joint tax return and double their remittances. I.R.C. Sec. 6694 (a) which forms part of the Tax Reform Act of 1976 imposes a penalty of $100 for any

The Components of the Multi-Media Employment Market Essay

The Components of the Multi-Media Employment Market - Essay Example The researcher states that many people today believe, that multi-media will fundamentally change the way people learn, communicate and entertain themselves. This can be done because people can now choose and customise how and what information they receive and when it is received. Unlike linear media like film and video multi-media users can interact and direct the sequence, speed and other aspects of the presentation†. For this especially skilled professionals have specific knowledge and skills. This essay aims to explore what actually multi-media is in the context of being an avenue of employment for millions on a global scale. It reports the characteristics of the employment market in this fast-growing sector of the global economy. It states the types of jobs that are universally accepted as being a part of the multi-media ambit and the professional and personal skills and requirements that are necessary to compete successfully. The researcher of this essay also explores the kinds of work that have to be successfully undertaken by incumbents in the various job profiles within multi-media. It is also mentioned that multi-media is being increasingly used in other devices today, such as mobile phones and kiosks. It is also being used pervasively in advertising products through electronic media. In conclusion, the researcher states that the scope for employment in multi-media is thus increasing at a pace, which is more than in many other innovative sector of industry worldwide.

Network Organization, Addressing, and Routing Protocols Research Paper

Network Organization, Addressing, and Routing Protocols - Research Paper Example The database maintaining a routing table develops a shortest path tree. The routes are than calculated the routes while minimizing the use of bandwidth ("Open Shortest Path First." 353-353). However, for a successful OSPF deployment, defining are boundaries and address assignment is essential. (Thomas 800) if all these domains are addressed adequately, the output will make all the difference. These domains are categorized in six different sections illustrated below: OSPF Network Topology OSPF Addressing and Route Summarization OSPF Route Selection OSPF Convergence OSPF Network Scalability OSPF Security In order to achieve the desired objectives, OSPF will ensure data redundancy over the network. Routers without OSPF enabled configuration will only be able to efficiently communicate routing information with other routers and do not provide redundancy, minimum network utilization and identification of the shortest path (Moy 339). However, there are some considerations that must be take n in to account for implementing network redundancy in OSPF. In order to implement a redundant network with OSPF there must be a backbone line. Moreover, the size of the backbone link must be appropriate, as every router located on the backbone requires reconfiguration for the routes whenever every state of the link changes. On the other hand, if the size of the backbone is small, the likelihood for change is minimized along with the quantity of CPU cycles that is required to re configure routes. Furthermore, OSPF backbone must be synchronized and all the routers should be directly connected (Moy 339). As OSPF comprises of virtual links, they establish a path between two border routers that are not directly terminated on the backbone link. Likewise, these virtual links are utilized for reconciling segregated backbone. Lastly, locating workstations, servers or shared network resources on the backbone are not a suitable option, as their absence makes the environment more stable and ea sy. On the other hand, OSPF enabled routers will ensure shortest path for transmitting data in time and with few hops. Moreover, routing loops can be considered as an alternative to OSPF but have certain drawbacks. For instance, data collision can be unexpected and unmanageable within the network. Therefore, OSPF is recommended for data redundancy along with eliminating traffic bottlenecks that may occur (Moy 339). The newly established IP version 6 protocol integration with OSPF facilitates for achieving the desired outcomes from the network. Moreover, OSPF is considered as an adaptive routing technique that synchronizes with business networks via Internet Protocol and provides link state routing. This algorithm is beneficial for business networks because large amount of data is exchanged with high redundancy and efficiency. The ultimate benefit for deploying link state routing is the cost, as it is considered as a cost effective solution (Moy 339). OSPF adoption provides an infras tructure for interior gateway that is beneficial for minimizing for excluding erroneous routing tables, minimizing memory usage and limits the usability on processors that are involved in the process. For satisfying the appetite of bandwidth hungry applications, advanced network protocols are essential to maintain even a network for small medium enterprises. Apart from its benefits to business networks,

Economic Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Economic Critique - Essay Example In principle, they would push the excess or extra tax to the customers and buyers of their products and services. Conventionally, the increase in princes due to increased taxation implies that the level of goods demanded would reduce since the people would not be in any position to buy. The law of equilibrium demands that for the markets or economy to clear, then demand ought to be equal to supply of goods or services. If the demand would reduce then the supply would also reduce in equal proportion. In the recent past, the Obama administration and the government at large has been pushing for a change in the fiscal policy relating to reduction in general taxes levied to the people especially those of the poor classes. This move or fiscal move is expansionary in nature. This is the situation where the government seeks to reduce the level of taxes that is levied to people especially the poor people in move aimed at cushioning them against the hard economic times of the current day and age. John Keynes as a pioneer economist and thinker advocated for the expansionary policy where the government reduces the taxes levied on the citizens to cushion them during inflation or times of economic anomie. In the field of economics, this expansionary move is taken and aimed at reducing the budget surplus and get the economy back to recovery path. On the contrary, the classical view is slightly different relative to the above position and stance. The classical economists are of the opinion that the expansionary moves and policies are completely unnecessary and would create an unnecessary disturbance on the economy. This is so because the classical economists believe that there are necessary and appropriate mechanisms in the market or economy which would correct and clear the market and economy on their own. This is to say that the market has

The movies Salt of the Earth and The Battle of Algiers Essay

The movies Salt of the Earth and The Battle of Algiers - Essay Example The strength of the women depicted in these films can only be said to be admirable because it shows that it is not only men who have the fortitude or capability of fighting for what they know to be their rights. It can be said that while women have increasingly taken up an active role in the societies that are depicted in the films, the bias and segregation against them is still an ongoing process, which need to be addressed. The roles that women lay in these films shows that they are an important part of the society, because they not only bring within it a different view of things, but they also bring the diversity needed to ensure that revolutions or social movements are successful. The films show that despite the fact that the men, who dominate the society, have denied these women the opportunity to take up their rightful position in society is quite unfortunate and that such discrimination should be remedied, to ensure that there is equality within the society. The films being analyzed provide a clear picture of how women are treated not only in the society as a whole but also in their personal lives as well. It is a fact that the films address instances concerning the gender differences and bias against women that take place within the society, and because of what can only be perceived as the men’s emotional distance, there seems to be nothing that is being done by the men, in the societies depicted, to remedy this situation. The films therefore show that the matter of the discrimination against women in their respective societies should be addressed because this is the only way through which the issues involved can be understood and addressed (Nunes 9 16). The films which have been analyzed provide a small picture of the biases that women underwent in the society and one would state that the issues that these films address are only some of the cases that existed in the societies depicted and still continue to do so today. It is most likely that future research will make more revelations concerning the treatment of women in the societies, depicted in both Salt of the Earth and The Battle of Algiers, to demonstrate the prominent roles that these women played in the social movements of the said societies. These films seem to have been developed in part with the intention of sparking a movement towards a change in the attitudes that put women in such different situations from their male counterparts. In addition, it can be said that these films seem to be a challenge to the men who view them to take up the responsibility of showing more concern and consideration towards the women in their lives. It can further be said that the men in society should stop using women in their societies merely for the sake of sexual fulfillment, and should instead treat them with the respect that they deserve, since they are equal participants in the development of their societies. The films being analysed depict societies dominated by men and this has created a situation where women are not treated as equals and are instead relegated to the background (Pfaelzer 120). In the films, it can be seen that women, have yet to establish themselves well within the society to ensure that they excel on an equal basis as their male counterparts. Instead, women face many challenges in order to find success in an environment which can only be considered to be extremely hostile to them.

Preservation of Biodiversity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Preservation of Biodiversity - Essay Example In pre-Colombian times, this area supported an estimated 700,000 persons (a multiple of todays population) in a sustainable form† (Lutz, n.d.). Interest of human beings needs to be served first. All countries should not be held to the same standards in the preservation of endangered habitats and species because different countries have different levels of economic strength, and socioeconomic and political issues. It is not practicable to establish same standards of preservation in all countries because different countries give different priority to the conservation of biodiversity, and the stance of individual nations is governed by their cultural and religious beliefs, that often vary across nations. Traditional practices such as whaling and killing wildlife for ivory, tiger bones, and rhinoceros horns, etc. are not justifiable because there are better alternatives to these which are not only environment friendlier but also good for the well-being of animals. Conventionally, b ones retrieved from animals have been of little to no use for humans. Mostly, these bones have been used for ornamental purposes which can be lived

Educational psychology Essay Example for Free

Educational psychology Essay Education in its general sense is a form of learning in which the knowledge, skills, and habits of a group of people are transferred from one generation to the next through teaching, training, or research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of others, but may also be autodidactic. [1] Any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational. Education is commonly divided into stages such as preschool, primary school, secondary school and then college, university or apprenticeship. A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the United Nations 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an education. [2] Although education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, attendance at school often isnt, and a minority of parents choose home-schooling, e-learning or similar for their children. Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Formal education 3. 1 Preschool 3. 2 Primary 3. 3 Secondary 3. 4 Tertiary (higher) 3. 5 Vocational 3. 6 Special 4 Other educational forms 4. 1 Alternative 4. 2 Indigenous 4. 3 Informal learning 4. 4 Self-directed learning 4. 5 Open education and e-learning 5 Development goals 5. 1 Internationalization 5. 2 Education and technology in developing countries 5. 3 Private v public funding in developing countries 6 Educational theory 6. 1 Purpose of schools 6. 2 Educational psychology 6. 3 Learning modalities 6. 4 Philosophy 6. 5 Curriculum 6. 6 Instruction 7 Economics 8 See also 9 References 10 External links Etymology[edit] Etymologically, the word education is derived from the Latin educatio (A breeding, a bringing up, a rearing) from educo (I educate, I train) which is related to the homonym educo (I lead forth, I take out; I raise up, I erect) from e- (from, out of) and duco (I lead, I conduct). [3] Education can take place in formal or informal educational settings. History[edit] Main article: History of education Nalanda, ancient center for higher learning Platos academy, mosaic from Pompeii Education began in the earliest prehistory, as adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. As cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond skills that could be readily learned through imitation, formal education developed. Schools existed in Egypt at the time of the Middle Kingdom. [4] A depiction of the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088 Matteo Ricci (left) and Xu Guangqi (right) in the Chinese edition of Euclids Elements published in 1607 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in Europe. [5] The city of Alexandria in Egypt, founded in 330 BCE, became the successor to Athens as the intellectual cradle of Ancient Greece. There mathematician Euclid and anatomist Herophilus; constructed the great Library of Alexandria and translated the Hebrew Bible into Greek. European civilizations suffered a collapse of literacy and organization following the fall of Rome in AD 476. [6] In China, Confucius (551-479 BCE), of the State of Lu, was Chinas most influential ancient philosopher, whose educational outlook continues to influence the societies of China and neighbours like Korea, Japan and Vietnam. He gathered disciples and searched in vain for a ruler who would adopt his ideals for good governance, but his Analects were written down by followers and have continued to influence education in East Asia into the modern era. [citation needed] After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centers of advanced education. Some of these ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europes modern universities. [6] During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation;[7] and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. [8] The University of Bologne is considered the oldest continually operating university. Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south. The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilisations — as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclids Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe. In most countries today, education is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. [9] Formal education[edit] Systems of schooling involve institutionalized teaching and learning in relation to a curriculum, which itself is established according to a predetermined purpose of the schools in the system. School systems are sometimes also based on religions, giving them different curricula. Preschool[edit] Young children in a kindergarten in Japan Main article: Early childhood education Preschools provide education up to the age of between 4 and 8 when children enter primary education. Also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the USA, where kindergarten is a term used for primary education. Preschool education is important because it can give a child the edge in a competitive world and education climate. [citation needed] While children who do not receive the fundamentals during their preschool years will be taught the alphabet, counting, shapes and colors and designs when they begin their formal education they will be behind the children who already possess that knowledge. The true purpose behind kindergarten is to provide a child-centered, preschool curriculum for three to seven year old children that aimed at unfolding the childs physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them. [10] This period of education is very important in the formative years of the child. Teachers with special skills and training are needed at this time to nurture the children to develop their potentials. [citation needed] Primary[edit] School children line, in Kerala, India Main article: Primary education Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first 5–7 years of formal, structured education. In general, primary education consists of six or eight years of schooling starting at the age of five or six, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, around 89% of primary-age children are enrolled in primary education, and this proportion is rising. [11] Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory for children to receive primary education. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fourteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools. Primary schools in these countries are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school. In India, compulsory education spans over twelve years, out of which children receive elementary education for 8 years. Elementary schooling consists of five years of primary schooling and 3 years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training. Secondary[edit] Students working with a teacher at Albany Senior High School, New Zealand Main article: Secondary education In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence. It is characterized by transition from the typically compulsory, comprehensive primary education for minors, to the optional, selective tertiary, post-secondary, or higher education (e. g. university, vocational school) for adults. Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, may be called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them, but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling. Secondary education occurs mainly during the teenage years. In the United States, Canada and Australia primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession. The emergence of secondary education in the United States did not happen until 1910, caused by the rise in big businesses and technological advances in factories (for instance, the emergence of electrification), that required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved  to be beneficial for both employers and employees, for the improvement in human capital caused employees to become more efficient, which lowered costs for the employer, and skilled employees received a higher wage than employees with just primary educational attainment. In Europe, grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 16th century, in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves have an even longer history. Community colleges offer nonresidential junior college offering courses to people living in a particular area. Tertiary (higher)[edit] Students in a laboratory, Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University See also: Higher education and Adult education Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or post secondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school providing a secondary education, such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities are the main institutions that provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Tertiary education generally results in the receipt of certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees. Higher education generally involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Universities are generally composed of several colleges. In the United States, universities can be private and independent like Yale University; public and state-governed like the Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education; or independent but state-funded like the University of Virginia. A number of career specific courses are now available to students through the Internet. A liberal arts institution can be defined as a college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum. [12] Although what is known today as the liberal arts college began in Europe,[13] the term is more commonly associated with universities in the United States. [citation needed] Vocational[edit]. Carpentry is normally learned through apprenticeship. Main article: Vocational education Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts. Special[edit] Main article: Special education In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were often educated by physicians or special tutors. These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills. Special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities in its early years, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning. [14] Other educational forms[edit] Alternative[edit] Main article: Alternative education While considered alternative today, most alternative systems have existed since ancient times. After the public school system was widely developed beginning in the 19th century, some parents found reasons to be discontented with the new system. Alternative education developed in part as a reaction to perceived limitations and failings of traditional education. A broad range of educational approaches emerged, including alternative schools, self learning, homeschooling and unschooling. Example alternative schools include Montessori schools, Waldorf schools (or Steiner schools), Friends schools, Sands School, Summerhill School, The Peepal Grove School, Sudbury Valley School, Krishnamurti schools, and open classroom schools. To a greater or lesser degree, ideas from these experiments and challenges to the system may in time be adopted by the mainstream, as to a large degree has happened with kindergarten, an experimental approach to early childhood education developed by Friedrich Frobel in 19th century Germany. Other influential writers and thinkers have included the Swiss humanitarian Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi; the American transcendentalists Amos Bronson Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Henry David Thoreau; the founders of progressive education, John Dewey and Francis Parker; and educational pioneers such as Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner, and more recently John Caldwell Holt, Paul Goodman, Frederick Mayer, George Dennison and Ivan Illich. Indigenous[edit] Na Schoolyard. Teaching indigenous knowledge, models, methods in Yanyuan County, Sichuan in China Main article: Indigenous education Indigenous education refers to the inclusion of indigenous knowledge, models, methods and content within formal and non-formal educational systems. Often in a post-colonial context, the growing recognition and use of indigenous education methods can be a response to the erosion and loss of indigenous knowledge and language through the processes of colonialism. Furthermore, it can enable indigenous communities to reclaim and revalue their languages and cultures, and in so doing, improve the educational success of indigenous students. [15] Informal learning[edit]. Main article: informal learning Informal learning is one of three forms of learning defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Informal learning occurs in a variety of places, such as at home, work, and through daily interactions and shared relationships among members of society. For many learners this includes language acquisition, cultural norms and manners. Informal learning for young people is an ongoing process that also occurs in a variety of places, such as out of school time, in youth programs at community centers and media labs. Informal learning usually takes place outside educational establishments, does not follow a specified curriculum and may originate accidentally, sporadically, in association with certain occasions, from changing practical requirements. It is not necessarily planned to be pedagogically conscious, systematic and according to subjects, but rather unconsciously incidental, holistically problem-related, and related to situation management and fitness for life. It is experienced directly in its natural function of everyday life and is often spontaneous. The concept of education through recreation was applied to childhood development in the 19th century. [16] In the early 20th century, the concept was broadened to include young adults but the emphasis was on physical activities. [17] L. P. Jacks, also an early proponent of lifelong learning, described education through recreation: A master in the art of living draws no sharp distinction between his work and his play, his labour and his leisure, his mind and his body, his education and his recreation. He hardly knows which is which. He simply pursues his vision of excellence through whatever he is doing and leaves others to determine whether he is working or playing. To himself he always seems to be doing both. Enough for him that he does it well. [18] Education through recreation is the opportunity to learn in a seamless fashion through all of lifes activities. [19] The concept has been revived by the University of Western Ontario to teach anatomy to medical students. [19] Self-directed learning[edit]. Main article: Autodidacticism Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is a contemplative, absorbing process, of learning on your own or by yourself, or as a self-teacher. Some autodidacts spend a great deal of time reviewing the resources of libraries and educational websites. One may become an autodidact at nearly any point in ones life. While some may have been informed in a conventional manner in a particular field, they may choose to inform themselves in other, often unrelated areas. Notable autodidacts include Abraham Lincoln (U. S. president), Srinivasa Ramanujan (mathematician), Michael Faraday (chemist and physicist), Charles Darwin (naturalist), Thomas Alva Edison (inventor), Tadao Ando (architect), George Bernard Shaw (playwright), Frank Zappa (composer, recording engineer, film director), and Leonardo da Vinci (engineer, scientist, mathematician). Open education and e-learning[edit] Main articles: Open education and E-learning In 2012, e-learning had grown at 14 times the rate of traditional learning. [clarification needed][20] Open education is fast growing to become the dominant form of education, for many reasons such as its efficiency and results compared to traditional methods. [21] Cost of education has been an issue throughout history, and a major political issue in most countries today. Open education is generally significantly cheaper than traditional campus based learning and in many cases even free. Many large university institutions are now starting to offer free or almost free full courses such as Harvard, MIT and Berkeley teaming up to form edX. Other universities offering open education are Stanford, Princeton, Duke, Johns Hopkins, Edinburgh, U. Penn, U. Michigan, U. Virginia, U. Washington, and Caltech. It has been called the biggest change in the way we learn since the printing press. [22] Many people despite favorable studies on effectiveness may still desire to choose traditional campus education for social and cultural reasons. [23] The conventional merit-system degree is currently not as common in open education as it is in campus universities, although some open universities do already offer conventional degrees such as the Open University in the United Kingdom. Presently, many of the major open education sources offer their own form of certificate. Due to the popularity of open education, these new kind of academic certificates are gaining more respect and equal academic value to traditional degrees. [24] Many open universities are working to have the ability to offer students standardized testing and traditional degrees and credentials. [citation needed] There has been a culture forming around distance learning for people who are looking to enjoy the shared social aspects that many people value in traditional on-campus education, which is not often directly offered from open education. [citation needed] Examples of this are people in open education forming study groups, meetups and movements such as UnCollege. Development goals[edit] World map indicating Education Index (according to 2007/2008 Human Development Report) Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. [when? ] (Chart does not include population statistics. ) Since 1909, the ratio of children in the developing world going to school has increased. Before then, a small minority of boys attended school. By the start of the 21st century, the majority of all children in most regions of the world attended school. There are 73 million children,[clarification needed] mostly female children in poor families, who did not start elementary school. There are more than 200 million children, mostly females from poor families, who did not go to secondary school. [25] Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. [26] Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to receiving more funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. [26] Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. [27] Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the recurrent costs involved. There is economic pressure from those parents who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education. [citation needed] A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. [28] Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles: national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention; strategies must be context relevant and context specific;[clarification needed] they should embrace an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;[clarification needed] partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development, while working towards some short-term achievements; outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels; a certain percentage of students should be removed for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade). Internationalization[edit]. Nearly every country now has Universal Primary Education. Similarities — in systems or even in ideas — that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Program[29] facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation[30] provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes. Education and technology in developing countries[edit]. The OLPC laptop being introduced to children in Haiti Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. There are charities dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials, for example, the One Laptop per Child project. The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations. In Africa, the New Partnership for Africas Development (NEPAD) has launched an e-school program to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. [31] An International Development Agency project called nabuur. com,[32] started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the Internet to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development. India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organization launched EDUSAT, a  communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the countrys population at a greatly reduced cost. [33] Private v public funding in developing countries[edit] Research into low cost private schools found that over 5 years to July 2013, debate around low-cost private schools to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarised and finding growing coverage in international policy. [34] The polarisation was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reaching disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, supporting or undermining equality, and are financially sustainable. The report examined the main challenges that development organisations which support LCPSs have encountered. [34] Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia and is attributed to excess demand. These surveys also found concern for: Equity, widely found in the literature, as the growth in low-cost private schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and between girls and boys. The report says findings are that LCPSs see evidence girls are underrepresented and that they are reaching some low-income families, often in small numbers compared with higher-income families. Quality of provision and educational outcomes: You cannot generalise about the quality of private schools. While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their social background is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in government schools. Choice and affordability for the poor: parents can choose private schools because of perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction preference. Nevertheless, the concept of ‘choice’ does not apply in all contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of limited affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to caste or social status. Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability: Evidence is that private schools operate at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, but their financial situation may be precarious where they are reliant on fees from low-income households. The report said there were some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programmes; evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. [34] Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPSs, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor. A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation rates of students from low income families. [35] Main article: Educational theory Purpose of schools[edit] Individual purposes for pursuing education can vary. The understanding of the goals and means of educational socialization processes may also differ according to the sociological paradigm used. In the early years of schooling, the focus is generally around developing basic interpersonal communication and literacy skills in order to further ability to learn more complex skills and subjects. After acquiring these basic abilities, education is commonly focused towards individuals gaining necessary knowledge and skills to improve ability to create value and a livelihood for themselves. [36] Satisfying personal curiosities (education for the sake of itself) and desire for personal development, to better oneself without career based reasons for doing so are also common reasons why people pursue education and use schools. [37] Education is often understood to be a means of overcoming handicaps, achieving greater equality and acquiring wealth and status for all (Sargent 1994). Learners can also be motivated by their interest in the subject area or specific skill they are trying to learn. Learner-responsibility education models are driven by the interest of the learner in the topic to be studied. [38] Education is often perceived as a place where children can develop according to their unique needs and potentialities[39] with the purpose of developing every individual to their full potential. Educational psychology[edit] Main article: Educational psychology Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms educational psychology and school psychology are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists, whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.

Methods of Value Engineering

Methods of Value Engineering CHAPTER1: INTRODUCTION In future the proactive and effective manage of cost, contracts, communication and claims – the four Cs- will consistently become more important to developers and facilitators involved in physical structures and properties. The Quantity surveyor should understand the challenges and opportunities presented by the needs of client in relation to cost, contracts, communication and claims and perhaps focus their development on the important links between the functions. Changes and developments in the industry and market will also influence the way in which these functions are managed. For those professionals who deliver these services to the industry, the focus should be on client satisfaction and a positive experience for all concerned. Establishing a link in effectively managing the process to ensure success should be the primary aim of the manager. This should be done in close partnership with all functionaries, engaged in the process. Planning, controlling and co-ordinating budgets and cost plans, as well as communicative results will limit claims and facilitate the process of contract management. The contract should also facilitate partnerships and the system should be aimed at satisfying needs, seeking opportunity and perusing growth. CHAPTER 2: AIMS OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The main objective of this paper is to study the subject of value engineering (now know as value management) from QS (ME) perspective. Based on the parameters; cost, contracts, communication and claims the value engineering study is done and the challenges faced by the quantity surveyor is also discussed. The objective of the study can be summarized as follows. To study the subject of value engineering and its methodology. To study the value engineering importance in cost management and the quantity surveyors role. To study how the selection of contracts can add value to the project and the quantity surveyors contribution to that process. To study the quantity surveyors communication strategies to achieve the expected value and clients objectives. To study how the knowledge of quantity surveyor can add value (in terms of money, time and effort) during disputes. CHAPTER 3: VALUE ENGINEERING THEORY METHODOLOGY 3.1: Methodology Value engineering methodology evolved in the 1940s when the transition was made from the search for an alternative to the search for means of fulfilling the functions of an alternative. Shortly afterwards it was observed that function-oriented alterations in working methods often result in improving quality along with eliminating unnecessary cost (Palmer et al., 1996). Since its introduction, the methodology has been well developed to be applied in construction industry, as it enables realization of life cycle cost and cost effectiveness of projects (Omigbodun, 2001). VE in the construction industry is mainly an organized effort to challenge the design and construction plans of projects to provide the required facility at the lowest overall costs, consistent with requirements for performance, reliability and maintainability (DellIsola, 1988). Delays in construction projects may be due to lack of meticulously devised plans (Ghorbani and Shokri, 2005) and consequently budget deficit (M irmoham madsadeghi and Aghdami Thani, 2005). Through all-pervasive utilization of the VE methodology such obstructions may be avoided. This judgement is made on the grounds that VE can improve plans and designs along with thriftiness in budget expenditures. Researches (e.g. Mirmoham madsadeghi and Aghdami Thani, 2005) show that this negligence is often due to limited access to experts and lack of knowledge about the method and its benefits (Table 1). One may realize that these two factors may predispose VE teams towards other obstruction factors (Mirmoham madsadeghi and Aghdami Thani, 2005). This obstacle may be surmounted with recourse to artificial intelligence (AI) models. Case-based reasoning (CBR) from AI may be utilized to enhance efficiency of VE study through outlining a model of the expert knowledge for a VE workshop. The inherent analogical nature of a CBR model would facilitate access to more comprehensive and systematically classified information during a VE workshop. Inasmuch as VE in the construction industry encompasses a cognitive process, such a reasoning method could be indispensable and could affirm promising results. Furthermore, classified background knowledge of the knowledge base may enhance the creativity of the VE study team, and transform their creativity to capability from an instinctive behaviour of mind. 3.2: Value Engineering Theory VE may be defined as a creative, organized approach whose objective is to optimize cost and/or performance of a facility or system (DellIsola, 1988). The focal points of the notion are function analysis and creativity. Through defining functions and classifying them, it spots functions with more potential of increasing value. Thereafter with the creative approach alternative ideas would be recommended to replace original design. An established framework for fulfilling assigned tasks of the methodology has been defined as the VE job plan. The job plan is defined through special phases ranging from five to eight in various versions, all following the same concept (Assaf et al., 2000). A typical version, comprising five phases, is selected in this study (Philips, 2003): (1) Information phase: information acquisition, function analysis and selecting areas with poor value for detailed study. (2) Creative phase: generating ideas as an alternative to meet the requirements of an understudied function. (3) Analytical phase: evaluation of ideas and selecting the best practical ideas. (4) Development phase: developing prominent ideas and selection of the best idea. (5) Presentation phase: recommending a VE change and improvement proposal in a most challenging format. Teamwork is an essential phenomenon in the VE job plan, resulting in crossing organizational lines (DellIsola, 1988). The ideal groups for VE should embrace different disciplines (Phillips, 2003): Design groups comprising project engineers, designers, draftsmen and mainly engineers who are responsible for construction. Operators groups comprising supervisors and construction engineers. Experts in costs groups with e.g. cost evaluators and accountants. Development groups comprising construction experts, commercial and financial experts. Organizer groups such as trouble-shooters or construction managers. CHAPTER 4: MANAGEMENT OF COST 4.1: Aims Goals of cost management The basic goals of cost management and pricing of a project or product relate to the link between price and intrinsic value, affordability in relation to needs or investment, and managing the procurement process. The cost managers should therefore understand that they need to work with clients from the very inception of a project, even earlier and then through out the process to ensure the best results. This does not mean that a cost planner or cost manager is a cost cutter, far from it a cost manager should take responsibility ( with designers, client and other roll players) to ensure the interest of the client, community and environment are served ( Ferry and Brandon, 1991:5). Grover Cleveland (cited in Nel, 1992:43) stated the following about the property investment: No investment on earth is so safe, so sure, so certain to enrich its owner. However, one also has to take best value into account as well as to put available funds to best use. This includes gearing, cost design or design to cost, cost planning, cost control, architecture, location environment etc. Sound investment has proven its value, been a safe guard against ill fortune, produced income, provided security and shown itself to be away of producing wealth( Nel, 1992:43). Utilizing funds to best effect will improve these benefits even further. The cost manager needs to understand that the type of construction required for a building will also influenced the performance of the building over time, including the functional performances of the users environment (mole, cited in Venmore- Rowland, Brandon and Mole, 1991:307). The cost managers should be continuously involved from the design to the co-ordination and auditing, to ensure best cost results, specifically in commercial property, where investment is required to yield the best financial returns. Other areas of cost management that need attention are cash flow, the timing of payments, interest rates and the availability of funds at specific times. These aspects also influence the total financial outlay and eventual returns on a property investment. Kenley (2003:3) stresses the potential value of improved and strategic cash flow to enhance the profitability of the construction industry, with the further potential to offer reduced costs to the client and improved contractor performance. Cash flow forecast and management should therefore be part of the cost managers service to ensure that the developers receive the full benefits of pro-active attention. The cost managers (Quantity Surveyors) involved must go beyond a re- active service. It should also include a service that takes the following aspects of value into account. Physical: a quality building Psychological; a pleasant looking building which is good to live in, places of the soul Real quality: cost effective but with specifications that fit the purpose. Durability: taking life cycle costs and whole life cycle costs into account. Design: design to cost, cost design and appearance. Affordability: budget and returns are important. Timelessness: short term fashions as opposed to design that will withstand the pressures of current whims. The cost manager, while communicating alternatives and options to the designers and the client should remember the role of relative quality, affordability, returns, as well as the latters link to design and specification. 4.2: Quantity Surveying and cost management methods and tools Although cost management may be seen as an obvious and simple process, in reality it is not. All aspects associated with a project have a direct impact on costing and how it is managed (knipe et al., 2002: 257). The quantity surveyor is ideally placed to manage this complex process. If the methods are followed correctly and the tools used effectively, cost management may produce exceptional results. 4.2.1: Cost Design This process is based on design aimed at satisfying the parameters dictated by cost, cost of acquisition, operation and management. The process may also be described as cost design where such design is defined as designing a project in economic terms, taking into account the cost and cost benefits of each element of the project in an effort to balance the interrelationship of all cost elements and the reason for its existence ( Knipe, 2002:276; Verster and Berry 2005:20-40). 4.2.2: Value Management Value management is a systematic approach and process earlier referred to as value engineering, to ensure delivery of a function or product at the lowest cost without detriment to quality, performance or reliability (Ashworth, 2004: 409-421; Green 1992). Value management is a continuous process that should occur throughout the project but is most effective when implemented right from the inception of the project. More over, it should also include the following aspects: Orientation: Understanding the issues Information: Identification of functions, needs, budgets, project constraints and timing. Speculation: The creative development of ideas and alternatives Analysis and evaluation: Elimination and filtering of ideas. Development: Examination in detail Selection: The final proposal Conclusion: Presenting the findings to the client. Value management is one of the effective tools available to quantity surveyors who are in a position to play an important role in ensuring that the client and designers actually consider all value and cost related aspects of construction, design specification and development options. 4.2.3: Cost Planning Cost planning is used to ensure that the developer knows in the early stages of a project what the anticipated final cost of the total development may be, including the cost of land, legal issues, demolitions, buildings, professionals, furniture, connections, tax, financing and management. Building cost is only of the items, but the quantity surveyor should include all costs in the cost plan of the final cost. The cost planner should have a clear understanding of cost and budget targets to enable him to adjust the developer about possible future over-runs and pro- actively to provide alternative solutions (Ferry and Brandon, 1991:9). One of the most effective tools that the quantity surveyor uses to assist with the planning and design process is the elemental cost plan. The theory behind the analysis of building costs per element is that the total cost is a sum of the cost of individual so- called elements such as walls, roofs, foundations, etc ( Morton and Jaggar, 1995:41-43). 4.2.4: Cost Control Linked to auditing, cost control is an activity that is aimed not only at reactive reporting of decision results, but also at accounting for the decisions and visions of the client and advising the client how best to achieve desired outcomes (Knipe et al., 2002:257). Cost control happens through out the deployment process, from the briefing stage to completion. 4.2.5: Cost Checking This process is necessary to ensure that the client is always informed about the actual performance of the building in cost terms in relation to the budget or cost plan. The actual cost of each element or section of the building as the detailed designs are developed is checked against the cost target or cost plan, or specific elements in the cost plan( Seeley, 1983:14). 4.2.6: Cost Analysis Cost analysis supports the quantity surveyors service to the client and can provide the quantity surveyor with useful cost information and data. The forms of cost analysis are identified by Ashworth (2002:69), namely; Identification of major cost items Analysis of the annual user cost of building ownership Identification of those groups of items(elements) of cost importance 4.2.7: Cost benefits analysis The aim of cost benefit analysis is to establish the real benefit of expenditure not only in financial terms, but also in terms of time and energy expended by human resources, and the social benefits (Ferry and Brandon, 1991:12-13). 4.2.8Life cycle costing The life cycle costing also known as cost-in- use describes the modelling techniques aimed at coping with the mixture of capital and running cost of buildings and effect on ownership of a building. The quantity surveyor must be very sensitive to the influence of all cost factors so that the client receives advice that is practical, applicable, timely and effectively 4.2.9: Cost reporting The Quantity surveyor must ensure that continuous, accurate cost information, analysis, cost results and cost influences are reported to the client and design team. 4.3: Conclusion Using the above tools, techniques or methods and implementing them effectively will result in a better product at a better price with lower maintenance cost and an increased return potential over a long period of time. Money is the most limited resource and the challenge is to utilize it optimally. Though the quantity surveyor is ideally positioned continuously to play an active role, he should also be more involved in strategic decisions to empower clients even more. CHAPTER 5: CONTRACTS AND THE QUANTITY SURVEYOR 5.1: Aims and goals of construction contract A contract is a document that spells out the rights and obligations of parties and the administration of this interaction while protecting the parties against the risks that emanate from various relationships, action s and production. Many alternative ways to procure contracts exist, but experience has shown that a partnership approach as opposed to a two -sided procurement method is preferable. The secret of success may be in the organization of rights, obligations and administration, in such a manner that mutual support by the parties and effective professional service to the contracting parties are important factors to be included in the contract. Although the legal systems in countries are very specific to each country, there are important aspects that need to form part of any construction contract in any country ensure harmony, the parties understanding o f duties and the effective administration of obligations: Objectives: Offer acceptance and performance Preparation: Documents Design responsibility Agents Site representation Regulations Works risk Indemnities Insurances Securities, guarantees etc Execution: Preparation Access to the works Access to the works Setting out of the works Assignment Nominated and selected sub contractors Direct contractors Completion: Practical, works and final completion Defects liability periods Sectional completion Revision of dates Penalties Payments: Interim payments to the contractor Adjustments Recoveries Final accounts Cancellation: By the employer or the contractor and the rights related to Default and disaster Disputes: Litigation, arbitration, adjudication and mediation. The above headings taken from an agreement show the general terms that should be included in a construction contract, but one needs to remember that many project- specific variables also need to be included in the agreement. The contract documents, apart from drawings and specification, should also include the following: Preliminaries the management of the contract Trade preambles basic standard specifications Bills of Quantities depending on the method of procurement used, but compiled in accordance with an acceptable and agreed standard. Guarantees. 5.2: Procurement options Although the quantity surveyors service is traditionally linked to the production of bills of quantities, the profession has evolved to play a pro-active role in any procurement alternative and contractor selection process. Once the quantity surveyors service, in relation to pre-contract cost advice , is concluded, the very important next service phase of procurement advice and action should be addressed. Basically, procurement can be divided into two main alternatives, these are: Price-in-advance methods Cost-reimbursement methods Various other procurement methods for diverse needs and reasons are used, such as cost plus, construction management, design and manage, and measured term contract. The primary considerations for contractor selection or procurement, however, are the following: the influence of cost, time and design as well as the clients needs and budgets. For this reason, the quantity surveyor may promote the multi-procurement method to enable the client to control the effects of time and cost, continuing to allow space for sustained design, development, effective professional service and contractor involvement. The method relives on producing procurement documents timely, on a provisional basis, based on provisional design information. This enables the procurement of a main contractor who will manage many other selected or nominated sub -contractors who will be procured during the development of the building, as detailed information becomes available. The secret of this method is that mutual unders tanding and a very close working relationship between all role players must exist. The quantity surveyor performs a very important task in the execution of the project. 5.3: Conclusion The proper selection of an appropriate procurement method and the introduction of effective contract terms that will enable the contracting parties to focus on the work at hand should derive from pro-active, knowledge -based advice to the client, taking all aspects and circumstances of the proposed project into account Contracts, ensuring a partnership approach and imposing order on the rights and the obligation in proper manner, generally cover all risks and ensure effective contributions by the client, contractor and professionals. CHAPTER 6: THE MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNICATION 6.1: The goals of a communication strategy 6.1.1: Contract communication Contract terms should be communicated to parties and people involved so that they have no or little doubt about the meaning of words or terms. For this reason, the following aids are used by courts to interpret contracts: Avoidance of absurdity Upholding the contract or clause as opposed to ineffectual or void interpretations Equitable interpretations The intention s of the parties The recitals are subordinate to the operative part of the contract The grammatical meaning of the words used The contract will be interpreted as a whole in respect of the purpose and scope The technical meaning of words The written contract itself as opposed to verbal explanations It is clearly understood that the contract guides the official communication related to rights, obligations and administration of the contract and by all the parties involved. It is therefore important that the quantity surveyor should understand all issues related to contract communications. 6.1.2: General communication In the information era, however, the strategic resource is information, knowledge and creativity. There is only one way a corporation can gain access to these valuable commodities through people its most important resource (Naisbitt and Aburdene in Puth, 1994: 25) The above quotation illustrates how important it is to work with people, not only informally but also formally by means of contract documents, and in the process communicate well with them. People are the most important resource and thus the most important aspect and source of success. 6.2: Communication using management and leadership methods While contract communication is generally used as a formal and official communication method to ensure that the rights and obligations of parties are protected and enforced, management and leadership communication, as an approach or method, are very important elements in ensuring results. 6.2.1: Management communication Management communication is the number one problem in business today. While technology has advanced in leaps and bounds, managers and academics understanding of the substance of the process. Communication is seen as the life-blood of organizational management; therefore, the manager and professional must have an adequate knowledge of the nature and role of communication although it is difficult to do well or understand the influence of communication (Ewing in Puth, 1994: 3). The effective communicator should have a well-founded understanding of substantive transformation as a basic approach. Management is inherently a problem-solving job ( Whetten and Cameron in Puth, 1974: 109), indicating the importance of communication while obvious criteria for solving problems are expertise, knowledge, skills and experience , using sound management principles to transmit function -and- outcome expectations. 6.2.2: Leadership communication Leadership is based on communication. Leaders communicate not only information, but also attitudes and assumptions (Emshoff and Denlinger in Puth, 1994: 146). Since professionals often find themselves in leadership positions where clients and other parties rely on their expertise and skills, the professional must also be able to communicate and be concerned with: Coping with change Understanding competition and markets Be able to inspire followers Be a good example and influence people to achieve goals Emshoff and Denlinger in Puth (1994: 147) suggest that many corporations today are over-managed and under-led. Professional leadership is needed and should be the concern of all professionals. Autry and Mitchell (1998: 214) suggest that a wise leader should embrace the paradox of: By not forcing, he leadsBy not dominating, he leadsBy not leading, he leads Leadership asks for communication with subordinates, partners, professionals and other functionaries. Leadership is expected of any professional because of his position, knowledge and pro-active service. The lessons to be learned from the above are that communication is not forceful, not dominating, but accommodating. 6.3: Conclusion Colin Bower warns against a specific form of leadership, in his words: Leadership is never a neutral value – far from it, it polarizes and divides he continues the cult of leadership is not more than the most thinly and inept disguised cloak of tyranny. He argues that we do need leaders in battles and expeditions, but because of these times, it should not mean that they are always needed and that leaders fudge issues and paper over cracks by substituting evangelical qualities for good organization, agreed objectives and rational propositions. He concludes with an idealistic picture of competent individuals acting as his or her own leader (Bower, 2005: 2). It remains clear that leadership could be all of the above, but that effective communication and partnerships with individuals may lead to success. CHAPTER 7: MANAGEMENT OF CLAIMS AND DISPUTES 7.1: The goals of claims and dispute resolution The goals o f claim and dispute resolution are firstly to establish the right of any party to submit a claim, and secondly to enable the other party to consider the claim in terms of its validity, contractual terms and possible outcome. Lodging or considering a claim do es not mean that a dispute exists, but should the rejection of a claim occur, a different interpretation of a claim exist, a difference of opinion obtain, one has to note that a dispute may then be lodged. Dispute resolution should then assist the parties in resolving such an impasse in a cost effective, satisfactory and timely manner. 7.2 The methods used to resolve disputes For the purpose of this paper, the methods to be discussed are cancellation, adjudication, mediation and arbitration. 7.2.1 Conciliation In an effort to resolve a dispute, satisfactory results are never guaranteed, not even in a court of law. It is therefore perhaps important to use inexpensive ways and methods to try and resolve a dispute. Results have shown that conciliation does have a remarkable measure of success in regard to solving differences before they can become disputes. The parties decide who the conciliator will be. The conciliator should, however, be a person with good communication skills and knowledge. The objective is to bring the parties together in a forum to investigate their contentions and assist the parties to formulate their own settlement, by indicating the consequences. Improved communication should be ensured through joint and separate meetings. The conciliator may also be requested to formulate an own opinion. In the end, parties are still left with the option to continue with litigation or arbitration. Conciliation, however, has the following foci and advantages: Control the parties control the process Consensus the parties aim at the best commercial solution Continuity the relationship will continue Confidentiality- no harmful public exposure The following diagram illustrates the difference between litigation and all ADR (Alternative Dispute Resolution) processes: The quantity surveyor, with good communication skills is ideally positioned to play an important role in respect of conciliation because disputes usually revolve around payments, valuations, certificates and penalties. 7.2.2: Adjudication Adjudication is an accelerated form of dispute resolution in which a neutral, impartial and independent third party deals with the dispute as an expert and not as an arbitrator, and whose determination is binding unless and until invalidated or overturned b y an arbitration award. The adjudicator shall not give advice to the parties or their representatives concerning any aspect of the Agreement in respect of which he has been appointed other than in accordance with stated Rules[Joint Building Contracts Committee (JBCC) 2005 4.1 Adjudication rules, cl. 1.1, 3.2] The procedure may be as follows: Either party shall submit full details of a dispute arising in terms of the agreement, together with copies of all relevant documents The other party may submit a written response The adjudicator shall: act as an expert and not as an arbitrator adopt the most cost and time -effective procedure The adjudicator may also: convene and conduct a hearing determine the payments and costs of the dispute on the basis of the submitted documents only meet with the parties decide on his own jurisdiction make use of specialist knowledge open up documents related to the dispute refuse admission to any persons other than the parties It is important to note that a n adjudication award is not binding on the parties, but is most definitely a process that will limit the costly processes of arbitration and litigation. Quantity surveyors and cost engineers are ideally positioned to play a very active role in adjudication. 7.2.3: Mediation